쿠차의 이야기형 천불도와 그 사상적 맥락 
- 복합적 불교 전통의 시각화 -

doi:10.21482/jbs.85..202512.283

All Issue

2025 Vol.85 Preview Page Next Page

투고논문

쿠차의 이야기형 천불도와 그 사상적 맥락 - 복합적 불교 전통의 시각화 - Narrative Thousand Buddha Paintings of Kucha and Their Religious Backgrounds: Visualization of the Multi-Layered Buddhist Traditions: 이지호
YI, Ji Ho; 독일 라이프치히대학교 인도티벳몽골학과 박사과정 학생

Doctoral Student, Department of Indian, Tibetan, and Mongolian Studies, Leipzig University (Universität Leipzig), Germany

31 December 2025. pp. 283∼319

PDF

Abstract

This study explores the characteristics of Buddhism in Kucha through an in-depth examination of narrative Thousand Buddha paintings found in the region’s rock-cut cave temples. Situated along the Northern Silk Road, Kucha functioned as a crucial nexus for the transmission of Buddhism between India and China. Unlike conventional Thousand Buddha paintings, which primarily consist of the repetitive arrangement of the identical Buddha images, the narrative type identified in Kumtura Caves 50, 29, and 34, as well as Kizil Cave 227, depicts specific scenes in which bodhisattvas make offerings to the Buddha, who in turn bestows predictions (vyākaraṇa) of future buddhahood.
These paintings are integrated with images of Amitābha’s Pure Land (Kumtura Cave 50), various spirit deities (Kumtura Cave 34), the City of Nirvāṇa (Kumtura Caves 29 and 50), and pretas in hell (Kizil Cave 227), and thus function as more than mere decoration; rather, they serve as visual manifestations of the multifaceted devotional and doctrinal landscape of Kucha Buddhism. Kumtura Cave 34 and Cave 50 are situated at some distance from other caves and display the characteristics of independent, small-scale worship spaces, suggesting that caves adorned with narrative Thousand Buddha imagery were recognized as distinctive sites of devotion in their own right.
After surveying Kucha’s geographical and historical context and analyzing the architectural and iconographic features of these caves, this paper demonstrates that such visual programs reflect the complex and syncretic nature of Buddhist belief and practice in Kucha. By focusing on this distinctive visual mode, the study offers new insights into the ways Kucha Buddhism integrated elements from multiple Buddhist traditions, thereby illuminating the ideological and cultural dynamics of Buddhism in this historically strategic and cosmopolitan center.

Keywords

Kucha

thousand Buddha

pranidhi

bodhisattva

Kumtura

본 연구는 쿠차 지역 석굴사원에 그려진 이야기형 천불도(千佛圖)를 심층적으로 고찰함으로써 쿠차 불교의 복합적·다층적 성격을 탐구하고자 한다. 쿠차는 실크로드 천산북로(天山北路)의 요충지로서 인도와 중국 사이에서 불교 전파의 주요 거점 중 하나였다. 전통적인 천불도가 동일한 불상 형상을 반복적으로 배치하는 데 그치는 반면, 이야기형 천불도는 보살이 부처에게 공양을 올리고, 부처가 그 보살에게 미래불(未來佛)이 될 것을 수기(授記)하는 장면들을 구체적으로 묘사한 그림이 열과 행을 달리하여 반복되는 모습을 하고 있다.
이러한 이야기형 천불도는 쿰투라 석굴 제29·34·50굴과 키질 석굴 제227굴에서 확인되었다. 그리고 아미타불의 서방 정토(쿰투라 석굴 제50굴), 다양한 천신의 도상(쿰투라 석굴 제34굴), 열반성(쿰투라 석굴 제29·50굴), 지옥의 아귀(키질 석굴 227굴) 등 기타 도상과 동반하여 각 석굴을 독특한 상징적 공간으로 조성하였다. 이들 석굴 벽화는 단순한 장식적 요소를 넘어 쿠차 불교의 다층적 신앙과 교리적 세계를 시각적으로 구현하였다. 쿰투라 제34굴과 제50굴은 다른 석굴들과 다소 분리된 위치에 조성되어 독립적인 소형 예배공간적 성격을 지니며, 이는 이야기형 천불도를 장식한 석굴이 그 자체로 특별한 예배공간으로 인식되었음을 시사한다.
본 논문은 먼저 쿠차의 지리적·역사적 배경을 개관하고, 이어 해당 석굴의 건축적 구조와 도상적 특징을 분석함으로써, 이러한 시각적 프로그램이 쿠차 불교의 복합적이고 혼융적인 신앙 양상을 반영함을 밝힌다. 이를 통해 쿠차 불교가 다양한 불교 전통의 요소를 수용·통합하였음을 규명하고, 나아가 실크로드 불교문화의 사상적·문화적 역동성을 새롭게 조명하고자 한다.

키워드

쿠차

천불

서원

보살

쿰투라

References

◆ 약호 및 일차 문헌 Abbreviations and Primary Sources

『高僧傳』 T. 50, no. 2059, 322c03-418a25.
『舊唐書』
『大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳』 T. 50, no. 2053, 220c06-280a06.
『大唐西域記』 T. 51, no. 2087, 867b13-947c01.
『佛說觀無量壽佛經』, T. 12, no. 365, 340b23-346b21.
『新唐書』
『遊方記抄』 T. 51, no. 2089, 975a09-995c23.
『漢書』
『後漢書』

◆ 이차 문헌 Secondary Literature

CHANG, Shuhong 常書鴻. 1996. 『新疆石窟藝術』 [Cave Art of Xinjiang]. 中共中央黨校出版社.
CHING, Chaojung 慶昭容. 2017. 『吐火羅語世俗文獻與古代龜玆歷史』 [Tocharian Secular Texts and the History of Ancient Kucha]. 北京: 北京大學出版社.
EBERT, Jorinde, 2006. The Dress of Queen Svayamprabhā from Kuča, Sasanian and Other Influences in the Robes of Royal Donors Depicted in Wall Paintings of the Tarim Basin. Regula Schorta ed. Central Asian Textiles and Their Contexts in the Early Middle Ages. Riggisberg: Abegg-Stiflung. 101-116.
FRASER, Sarah. 1996. Regimes of Production, the Use of Pounces in Grotto Construction. Orientations. Special issue on Dunhuang Buddhist cave site (November 1996). 27. 9. 60-69.
GROUSSET, René 르네 그루쎄. 김호동·유원수·정재훈 역. 1998. 『유라시아 유목제국사』. 파주: 사계절.
GRÜNWEDEL, Albert. 1912. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan: Bericht über archäologische Arbeiten von 1906 bis 1907 bei Kuča, Qarašahr und in der Oase Turfan. Berlin: Reimer.10.1515/9783111533896
HAN, Jeeyeon 한지연. 2011. 『서역불교 교류사』[History of Buddhist Exchanges in the Western Regions]. 은정불교학술총서 5. 서울: 은정불교문화진흥원.
HINÜBER, Oskar von. 1975. Kulturgeschichtliches aus dem Bhikṣuṇī-Vinaya: die saṃkakṣikā. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 125. 1: 133-139
HINÜBER, Oskar von, and Anālayo. 2016. The Robes of a Bhikkhunī. Journal of the Centre for Buddhist Studies 13: 79-90.
HOWARD, Angela Falco. 1991. In Support of a New Chronology for the Kizil Mural Paintings. Archives of Asian Art 44: 68-83
HÖLLMANN, Thomas O. 2022. China und die Seidenstrasse: Kultur und Geschichte von der frühen Kaiserzeit bis zur Gegenwart. Munich: C. H. Beck10.17104/9783406781704
HU-VON HINÜBER, Haiyan. 2018. What to Do if the Owner of a Monastery Is Put in Jail?: The Saṃgha’s Begging Area According to Early Vinaya Texts. Oliver von Criegern, Gudrun Melzer und Johannes Schneider (eds.) Saddharmāmṛtam. Festschrift für Jens-Uwe Hartmann zum 65. Geburtstag. Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde 93. Vienna: Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien: 201-213.
KIM, Haewon 김혜원. 2006. 『실크로드에서 온 천불도: 국립중앙박물관 소장 중앙아시아 벽화』[Thousand-Buddha Murals from Silk Road: Central Asian Murals at the National Museum of Korea]. 서울: 주자소.
KONCZAK-NAGEL, Ines. 2020a. Painted Buddhist Cosmology: The Pictorial Programme of Central Pillar Caves in Kizil. Ines Konczak-Nagel and Monika Zin (eds.). Essays and Studies in the Art of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 1. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors: 1-10.
______. 2020b. Representations of Architecture and Architectural Elements. Ines Konczak-Nagel and Monika Zin (eds.). Essays and Studies in the Art of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 1. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors: 11-106.
______. 2021. Dämonisches aus Kizil: Darstellung des Āṭānāṭikasūtra in einem Wandgemälde aus der Höhle 178 (Schluchthöhle) am Museum für Asiatische Kunst (III 8725a). Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift 25: 4-13.
LE COQ, Albert von and Ernst WALDSCHMIDT, 1933, Die buddhistische Spätantike VIII. Neue Bildwerke. Berlin: Reimer; Vohsen.
LIU, Mau-Tsai. 1969. Kutscha und seine Beziehungen zu China vom 2. Jh. v. Bis zum 6. Jh. n. Chr. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
LOKESH CHANDRA. 1996. Iconography of the Thousand Buddhas. Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
NAKAGAWARA, Ikuko 中川原育子. 1999. 「クチャ地域の供養者像に関する考察―キジルにおける供養者図の展開を中心に―[A Study of Donor Figures in the Kucha Region: Focusing on the Development of Donor Representations in Kizil]」. 『名古屋大学文学部研究論集 (哲学45)』(Research Bulletin of the Faculty of Letters, Nagoya University (Philosophy 45). 89-120.
OGIHARA, Hirotoshi 荻原裕敏. 2015a. 「试论库木吐喇第5 0 窟主室正壁佛龛千佛图像的程序」[Arrangement of the Paintings of Thousand Buddhas in the Niche on the Main Wall of the Main Chamber of Cave No.50 in the Kumtura Grotttoes]. 『西域研究』(The Western Regions Studies) 2015年 3期: 36-42. http://doi.org/10.16363/j.cnki.xyyj.2015.03.004. (趙麗 and 榮新江. 2020. Research Papers volume: 141-153에 재판) 10.16363/j.cnki.xyyj.2015.03.004
______. 2015b. 「吐火罗语文献所见佛名系列——以出土佛典与库木吐喇窟群区第34窟榜题为例」[ A Brief Report on the Kuchean Captions Presently Surviving in the Cave No. 34, Kumtura Grottoes]. 『西域文史』(Literature and History of the Western Regions)9: 33-49. (趙麗 and 榮新江. 2020. Research Papers volume: 99-117에 재판)
______. 2017. 「クチャ‧クムトラ窟群區第50窟の千佛圖像について--敦煌出⼟コータン語『賢劫經』との⽐較」[The Thousand Buddha Imagery of Cave 50 in Area A of the Kucha-Kumtura Grottoes: A Comparison with the Khotanese Bhadrakalpika-sūtra from Dunhuang]. 『敦煌寫本研究年報』(Annual Report of Dunhuang Manuscript Studies) 11 (2017, 3): 109-133. http://hdl.handle.net/2433/246120
PARK, Sangsoo 박상수. 2009. 「돈황문헌의 한문불교경전 구성유형 고찰」[A Survey of the Type of Framework about Buddhist Chinese Manuscripts from Dunhuang]. 『한국불교학』(The Journal of the Korean Association for Buddhist Studies) 54. 215-270.
SKILLING, Peter and SAERJI. 2014. How the Buddhas of the Fortunate Aeon First Aspired to Awakening: The pūrva-praṇidhānas of Buddhas 1-250. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2013 (Tokyo 2014) 17: 245-291.
______. 2016. How the Buddhas of the Fortunate Aeon First Aspired to Awakening: The pūrva-praṇidhānas of Buddhas 251-500. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2015 (Tokyo 2016) 19: 149-192.
______. 2017. How the Buddhas of the Fortunate Aeon First Aspired to Awakening: The pūrva-praṇidhānas of Buddhas 501-750. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2016 (Tokyo 2017) 20: 167-204.
______. 2018. How the Buddhas of the Fortunate Aeon First Aspired to Awakening: The pūrva-praṇidhānas of Buddhas 751-994. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2017 (Tokyo 2019) 21: 209-244.
VAN SCHAIK, Sam. 2020. Buddhist Magic: Divination, Healing, and Enchantment through the Ages. Boulder: Shambala.
VERARDI, Giovanni and DHAMMADINNĀ. 2024. The nun of Milan: A Gandharan bhikṣuṇī figurine in the Civico Museo Archeologico [two figures]. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2023 (Tokyo 2024) 27: 179-186.
VIGNATO, Giuseppe. 2010. The Interrelationship of Sites, Districts, Groups, and Individual Caves in Kucha. Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 5: 129-143.10.1484/J.JIAAA.1.103272
______ (魏正中), 2014, 『區段與組合: 龜茲石窟寺院遺址的考古學探索』[Districts and groups : an archaeological investigation of the rock monasteries of Kucha]. 上海: 上海古籍出
VIGNATO, Giuseppe and Satomi HIYAMA. 2022. Traces of the Sarvāstivādins in the Buddhist Monasteries of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 3. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors.
WANG, Xin. 2014. Gaochang Buddhism and the Silk Road. International Journal of Korean History 19. 1, 23-45.10.22372/ijkh.2014.19.1.23
WON, Haeyoung 원혜영. 2016. 「돈황문헌의 『佛說佛名經』연구」[A Study of Foshuo-foming-jing(佛說佛名經) in the Tunhuang Literature]. 『동방학지』(The Journal of Korean Studies)175. 57-75.10.17788/dbhc.2016..175.003
XINJIANG KUCHA ACADEMY 新疆龜玆石窟硏究所. 2000. 『克孜尒石窟內容總錄』 [The Complete Catalogue of Kizil Grottoes]. 北京: 文物出版社.
______. 2008. 『庫木吐喇石窟內容總錄』[The Complete Catalogue of Kumtura Grottoes]. 北京: 文物出版社.
YANG, Bo 楊波. 2025. 「贤劫经·千佛发意品》的图现 - 库木吐喇窟群区第50 窟壁画研究」[An Analysis of the ‘Pūrva-Praṇidhānas of One Thousand Buddhas of Bhadrakaplika-Sūtra’ Presented in the Murals of Cave 50 of Kumtura Grottoes]. 故宮博物院院刊 (Palace Museum Journal) 2025/6 (278) 36-54. http://doi.org/10.16319/j.cnki.0452-7402.2025.06.00710.16319/j.cnki.0452-7402.2025.06.007
YI, Ji Ho 이지호. 2024a. 「쿠차의 천불도 중 사각형 구획의 불좌상 유형 연구」[A Study of Seated Buddha Image Types in the Square Sections of the Thousand Buddha Murals at Kucha]. 『교차하는 아시아』(Intersecting Asia) 14. 43-88.
______. 2024b. 「쿠차 불교 석굴 사원 벽화 공양자상의 사례로 추정한 경주 계림로 보검의 함의」[The Jeweled Dagger from Gyerim-no as a Possible Status Symbol] . 『중앙아시아연구』(Central Asian Studies) 29. 2. 1-22.
______. 2025. Reassessment of Gandhāran Sculpture I 127 at the Museum für Asiatische Kunst: On The Possibilities of Distinguishing The Robes of Monks and Nuns. Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift 29: 70-77.
______. forthcoming. In the Realm of Salvation: Thousand Aspirations to Enlightenment and Lotus Rebirth Depicted in Kumtura Cave 50. Translating Buddhism into a Visual Language: Current Research in the Art of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 7. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors.
ZHAO, Li 趙麗 and RONG, Xinjiang 榮新江. 2020. 『龜茲石窟題記』[Cave Inscriptions in Ancient Kucha]. 3 vols. 上海: 上海中西出版社.
ZHU, Yingrong 朱英荣. 1993. 『龜玆石窟硏究』[Study of Kucha Caves]. 新疆美術撮影出版社.
ZIN, Monika. 2020. Representations of the Parinirvāṇa Story Cycle in Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 2. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors.
______. 2023a. Maitreya, the Saviour?: Enigmatic ‘Mahābodhisatvas’ in Kucha. Hualin International Journal of Buddhist Studies 6.1, 336-378.10.15239/hijbs.06.01.08
______. 2023b. Gods, Deities, and Demons in the Paintings of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 4. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors.

Information

Publisher :Korean Association of Buddhist Studies
Publisher(Ko) :불교학연구회
Journal Title :Korean Journal of Buddhist Studies
Journal Title(Ko) :불교학연구
Volume : 85
Pages :283∼319
DOI :https://doi.org/10.21482/jbs.85..202512.283

[1] 『高僧傳』 T. 50, no. 2059, 322c03-418a25.

[2] 『舊唐書』

[3] 『大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳』 T. 50, no. 2053, 220c06-280a06.

[4] 『大唐西域記』 T. 51, no. 2087, 867b13-947c01.

[5] 『佛說觀無量壽佛經』, T. 12, no. 365, 340b23-346b21.

[6] 『新唐書』

[7] 『遊方記抄』 T. 51, no. 2089, 975a09-995c23.

[8] 『漢書』

[9] 『後漢書』

[10] CHANG, Shuhong 常書鴻. 1996. 『新疆石窟藝術』 [Cave Art of Xinjiang]. 中共中央黨校出版社.

[11] CHING, Chaojung 慶昭容. 2017. 『吐火羅語世俗文獻與古代龜玆歷史』 [Tocharian Secular Texts and the History of Ancient Kucha]. 北京: 北京大學出版社.

[12] EBERT, Jorinde, 2006. The Dress of Queen Svayamprabhā from Kuča, Sasanian and Other Influences in the Robes of Royal Donors Depicted in Wall Paintings of the Tarim Basin. Regula Schorta ed. Central Asian Textiles and Their Contexts in the Early Middle Ages. Riggisberg: Abegg-Stiflung. 101-116.

[13] FRASER, Sarah. 1996. Regimes of Production, the Use of Pounces in Grotto Construction. Orientations. Special issue on Dunhuang Buddhist cave site (November 1996). 27. 9. 60-69.

[14] GROUSSET, René 르네 그루쎄. 김호동·유원수·정재훈 역. 1998. 『유라시아 유목제국사』. 파주: 사계절.

[15] GRÜNWEDEL, Albert. 1912. Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan: Bericht über archäologische Arbeiten von 1906 bis 1907 bei Kuča, Qarašahr und in der Oase Turfan. Berlin: Reimer.10.1515/9783111533896

[16] HAN, Jeeyeon 한지연. 2011. 『서역불교 교류사』[History of Buddhist Exchanges in the Western Regions]. 은정불교학술총서 5. 서울: 은정불교문화진흥원.

[17] HINÜBER, Oskar von. 1975. Kulturgeschichtliches aus dem Bhikṣuṇī-Vinaya: die saṃkakṣikā. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 125. 1: 133-139

[18] HINÜBER, Oskar von, and Anālayo. 2016. The Robes of a Bhikkhunī. Journal of the Centre for Buddhist Studies 13: 79-90.

[19] HOWARD, Angela Falco. 1991. In Support of a New Chronology for the Kizil Mural Paintings. Archives of Asian Art 44: 68-83

[20] HÖLLMANN, Thomas O. 2022. China und die Seidenstrasse: Kultur und Geschichte von der frühen Kaiserzeit bis zur Gegenwart. Munich: C. H. Beck10.17104/9783406781704

[21] HU-VON HINÜBER, Haiyan. 2018. What to Do if the Owner of a Monastery Is Put in Jail?: The Saṃgha’s Begging Area According to Early Vinaya Texts. Oliver von Criegern, Gudrun Melzer und Johannes Schneider (eds.) Saddharmāmṛtam. Festschrift für Jens-Uwe Hartmann zum 65. Geburtstag. Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde 93. Vienna: Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien: 201-213.

[22] KIM, Haewon 김혜원. 2006. 『실크로드에서 온 천불도: 국립중앙박물관 소장 중앙아시아 벽화』[Thousand-Buddha Murals from Silk Road: Central Asian Murals at the National Museum of Korea]. 서울: 주자소.

[23] KONCZAK-NAGEL, Ines. 2020a. Painted Buddhist Cosmology: The Pictorial Programme of Central Pillar Caves in Kizil. Ines Konczak-Nagel and Monika Zin (eds.). Essays and Studies in the Art of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 1. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors: 1-10.

[24] ______. 2020b. Representations of Architecture and Architectural Elements. Ines Konczak-Nagel and Monika Zin (eds.). Essays and Studies in the Art of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 1. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors: 11-106.

[25] ______. 2021. Dämonisches aus Kizil: Darstellung des Āṭānāṭikasūtra in einem Wandgemälde aus der Höhle 178 (Schluchthöhle) am Museum für Asiatische Kunst (III 8725a). Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift 25: 4-13.

[26] LE COQ, Albert von and Ernst WALDSCHMIDT, 1933, Die buddhistische Spätantike VIII. Neue Bildwerke. Berlin: Reimer; Vohsen.

[27] LIU, Mau-Tsai. 1969. Kutscha und seine Beziehungen zu China vom 2. Jh. v. Bis zum 6. Jh. n. Chr. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

[28] LOKESH CHANDRA. 1996. Iconography of the Thousand Buddhas. Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.

[29] NAKAGAWARA, Ikuko 中川原育子. 1999. 「クチャ地域の供養者像に関する考察―キジルにおける供養者図の展開を中心に―[A Study of Donor Figures in the Kucha Region: Focusing on the Development of Donor Representations in Kizil]」. 『名古屋大学文学部研究論集 (哲学45)』(Research Bulletin of the Faculty of Letters, Nagoya University (Philosophy 45). 89-120.

[30] OGIHARA, Hirotoshi 荻原裕敏. 2015a. 「试论库木吐喇第5 0 窟主室正壁佛龛千佛图像的程序」[Arrangement of the Paintings of Thousand Buddhas in the Niche on the Main Wall of the Main Chamber of Cave No.50 in the Kumtura Grotttoes]. 『西域研究』(The Western Regions Studies) 2015年 3期: 36-42. http://doi.org/10.16363/j.cnki.xyyj.2015.03.004. (趙麗 and 榮新江. 2020. Research Papers volume: 141-153에 재판) 10.16363/j.cnki.xyyj.2015.03.004

[31] ______. 2015b. 「吐火罗语文献所见佛名系列——以出土佛典与库木吐喇窟群区第34窟榜题为例」[ A Brief Report on the Kuchean Captions Presently Surviving in the Cave No. 34, Kumtura Grottoes]. 『西域文史』(Literature and History of the Western Regions)9: 33-49. (趙麗 and 榮新江. 2020. Research Papers volume: 99-117에 재판)

[32] ______. 2017. 「クチャ‧クムトラ窟群區第50窟の千佛圖像について--敦煌出⼟コータン語『賢劫經』との⽐較」[The Thousand Buddha Imagery of Cave 50 in Area A of the Kucha-Kumtura Grottoes: A Comparison with the Khotanese Bhadrakalpika-sūtra from Dunhuang]. 『敦煌寫本研究年報』(Annual Report of Dunhuang Manuscript Studies) 11 (2017, 3): 109-133. http://hdl.handle.net/2433/246120

[33] PARK, Sangsoo 박상수. 2009. 「돈황문헌의 한문불교경전 구성유형 고찰」[A Survey of the Type of Framework about Buddhist Chinese Manuscripts from Dunhuang]. 『한국불교학』(The Journal of the Korean Association for Buddhist Studies) 54. 215-270.

[34] SKILLING, Peter and SAERJI. 2014. How the Buddhas of the Fortunate Aeon First Aspired to Awakening: The pūrva-praṇidhānas of Buddhas 1-250. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2013 (Tokyo 2014) 17: 245-291.

[35] ______. 2016. How the Buddhas of the Fortunate Aeon First Aspired to Awakening: The pūrva-praṇidhānas of Buddhas 251-500. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2015 (Tokyo 2016) 19: 149-192.

[36] ______. 2017. How the Buddhas of the Fortunate Aeon First Aspired to Awakening: The pūrva-praṇidhānas of Buddhas 501-750. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2016 (Tokyo 2017) 20: 167-204.

[37] ______. 2018. How the Buddhas of the Fortunate Aeon First Aspired to Awakening: The pūrva-praṇidhānas of Buddhas 751-994. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2017 (Tokyo 2019) 21: 209-244.

[38] VAN SCHAIK, Sam. 2020. Buddhist Magic: Divination, Healing, and Enchantment through the Ages. Boulder: Shambala.

[39] VERARDI, Giovanni and DHAMMADINNĀ. 2024. The nun of Milan: A Gandharan bhikṣuṇī figurine in the Civico Museo Archeologico [two figures]. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2023 (Tokyo 2024) 27: 179-186.

[40] VIGNATO, Giuseppe. 2010. The Interrelationship of Sites, Districts, Groups, and Individual Caves in Kucha. Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 5: 129-143.10.1484/J.JIAAA.1.103272

[41] ______ (魏正中), 2014, 『區段與組合: 龜茲石窟寺院遺址的考古學探索』[Districts and groups : an archaeological investigation of the rock monasteries of Kucha]. 上海: 上海古籍出

[42] VIGNATO, Giuseppe and Satomi HIYAMA. 2022. Traces of the Sarvāstivādins in the Buddhist Monasteries of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 3. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors.

[43] WANG, Xin. 2014. Gaochang Buddhism and the Silk Road. International Journal of Korean History 19. 1, 23-45.10.22372/ijkh.2014.19.1.23

[44] WON, Haeyoung 원혜영. 2016. 「돈황문헌의 『佛說佛名經』연구」[A Study of Foshuo-foming-jing(佛說佛名經) in the Tunhuang Literature]. 『동방학지』(The Journal of Korean Studies)175. 57-75.10.17788/dbhc.2016..175.003

[45] XINJIANG KUCHA ACADEMY 新疆龜玆石窟硏究所. 2000. 『克孜尒石窟內容總錄』 [The Complete Catalogue of Kizil Grottoes]. 北京: 文物出版社.

[46] ______. 2008. 『庫木吐喇石窟內容總錄』[The Complete Catalogue of Kumtura Grottoes]. 北京: 文物出版社.

[47] YANG, Bo 楊波. 2025. 「贤劫经·千佛发意品》的图现 - 库木吐喇窟群区第50 窟壁画研究」[An Analysis of the ‘Pūrva-Praṇidhānas of One Thousand Buddhas of Bhadrakaplika-Sūtra’ Presented in the Murals of Cave 50 of Kumtura Grottoes]. 故宮博物院院刊 (Palace Museum Journal) 2025/6 (278) 36-54. http://doi.org/10.16319/j.cnki.0452-7402.2025.06.00710.16319/j.cnki.0452-7402.2025.06.007

[48] YI, Ji Ho 이지호. 2024a. 「쿠차의 천불도 중 사각형 구획의 불좌상 유형 연구」[A Study of Seated Buddha Image Types in the Square Sections of the Thousand Buddha Murals at Kucha]. 『교차하는 아시아』(Intersecting Asia) 14. 43-88.

[49] ______. 2024b. 「쿠차 불교 석굴 사원 벽화 공양자상의 사례로 추정한 경주 계림로 보검의 함의」[The Jeweled Dagger from Gyerim-no as a Possible Status Symbol] . 『중앙아시아연구』(Central Asian Studies) 29. 2. 1-22.

[50] ______. 2025. Reassessment of Gandhāran Sculpture I 127 at the Museum für Asiatische Kunst: On The Possibilities of Distinguishing The Robes of Monks and Nuns. Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift 29: 70-77.

[51] ______. forthcoming. In the Realm of Salvation: Thousand Aspirations to Enlightenment and Lotus Rebirth Depicted in Kumtura Cave 50. Translating Buddhism into a Visual Language: Current Research in the Art of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 7. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors.

[52] ZHAO, Li 趙麗 and RONG, Xinjiang 榮新江. 2020. 『龜茲石窟題記』[Cave Inscriptions in Ancient Kucha]. 3 vols. 上海: 上海中西出版社.

[53] ZHU, Yingrong 朱英荣. 1993. 『龜玆石窟硏究』[Study of Kucha Caves]. 新疆美術撮影出版社.

[54] ZIN, Monika. 2020. Representations of the Parinirvāṇa Story Cycle in Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 2. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors.

[55] ______. 2023a. Maitreya, the Saviour?: Enigmatic ‘Mahābodhisatvas’ in Kucha. Hualin International Journal of Buddhist Studies 6.1, 336-378.10.15239/hijbs.06.01.08

[56] ______. 2023b. Gods, Deities, and Demons in the Paintings of Kucha. Leipzig Kucha Studies 4. New Delhi: Dev Publishers and Distributors.

Korean Journal of Buddhist Studies ISSN:1598-0642(Print) 불교학연구

All Issue