역사적 붓다의 본성에 대한 재고찰
－초기 불교 문헌을 완성된 전체로 파악하는 접근법에 입각하여－

doi:10.21482/jbs.84..202509.1

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특집논문

역사적 붓다의 본성에 대한 재고찰 －초기 불교 문헌을 완성된 전체로 파악하는 접근법에 입각하여－ The Historical Buddha Revisited: Interpreting Early Buddhist Texts as an Integrated Whole: 김한상
KIM, Han-Sang; 능인대학원대학교 불교학과 조교수

Assistant Professor, Department of Buddhist Studies, Nungin University

30 September 2025. pp. 1∼23

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Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to refute the so-called “deification theory of the Buddha” and to present a comprehensive understanding of the Buddha by examining his image as portrayed in early Buddhist literature, free from modern biases. Instead of analyzing isolated suttas, this study approaches the early Buddhist texts as a unified whole in order to explore their overarching meaning and internal coherence. From this perspective, it becomes evident that early Buddhists emphasized the Buddha’s superhuman nature from the beginning, rather than focusing primarily on his human qualities. Following his enlightenment, the Buddha could no longer be classified as merely “human,” having perfected and transcended his humanity. This transcendence is reflected in the term “Tathāgata,” which the Buddha used to refer to himself, indicating that he surpassed ordinary human limitations. His mystical nature is further affirmed by scriptural references describing him as the one who embodies the dharma (dhamma-kāya) and as “the one who has become the dharma” (dhamma-bhūta). Through this analysis, the paper demonstrates that the Buddha was perceived from the outset as a superhuman being, offering a new interpretive horizon for discussions on his deification.

Keywords

Deification theory of the Buddha

Tathāgata

Dhamma-kāya

Humanness of the Buddha

Mythologization of the Buddha

Early Buddhism

이 논문의 목적은 초기 불교 문헌에서 그려지는 붓다의 모습을 근대적 편견을 섞지 않고 텍스트에 입각한 형태 그대로 파악함으로써 이른바 ‘역사적 붓다의 신격화설’을 반박하고 붓다에 대한 종합적 이해를 도모하려는 것이다. 이 논문은 초기 불교 문헌을 일관된 전체로 분석하여 개별 경에만 집중하기보다는 그 통일된 의미와 상호 연관성을 이해하고자 했다. 이러한 관점에서 볼 때, 초기 불교인들은 처음부터 붓다의 인간적 본성과 대조되는 붓다의 초인적 본성에 초점을 맞추었음이 분명하다. 붓다는 깨달음을 얻은 후에는 더 이상 ‘인간’이라고 불릴 수 없었는데, 이는 붓다가 자신의 인간성을 완성하고 초월했기 때문이다. 붓다가 자신을 가리킬 때 사용했던 ‘여래(Tathāgata)’라는 용어가 인간의 한계를 초월하는 붓다의 초월성을 함축한다는 사실은 이를 잘 보여준다. 붓다의 이러한 신비로운 본질은 붓다가 법을 몸으로 지닌 자(dhamma-kāya)이자, ‘법이 된 자(dhamma-bhūta)’로 규정될 수 있다는 성전 구절들에 의해 더욱 강화된다. 이러한 분석을 통해 붓다는 처음부터 초인적인 존재로 인식되었음을 밝히고, 역사적 붓다의 신격화 논의에 새로운 해석의 지평을 제시하고자 한다.

키워드

사적 붓다의 신격화설

여래(如來

tathāgata)

법을 몸으로 지닌(dhamma-kāya)

붓다의 인간적 모습

초기 불교

References

◆ 약호 및 일차 문헌 Abbreviations and Primary Sources

AN. Aṅguttara-Nikāya, ed. by Richard Morris and E. Hardy, 5 vols., London: Pali Text Society, 1999-2013, 1885-1900 respectively (reprints).
DN. Dīgha-Nikāya, ed. by T. W. Rhys Davids and J. E. Carpenter, 3 Vols., London: Pali Text Society, 1995-2007, 1890-1911 respectively (reprints).
It. Itivuttaka, ed. by Ernst Windisch, London: Pali Text Society, 1975, 2010, 1889 respectively (reprints).
Mil. Milindapañha, ed. by V. Trenckner, London: Pali Text Society, 1997, 1880 respectively (reprints).
MN. Majjhima-Nikāya, ed. by V. Trenckner and R. Chelmers, 3 vols., London: Pali Text Society, 2013, 1888-1902 respectively (reprints).
SN. Saṃyutta-Nikāya, ed. by Léon Feer, 5 vols., London: Pali Text Society, 1975-2006, 1884-1898 respectively (reprints).
Sn. Suttanipāta, ed. by Dines Andersen and Helmer Smith, London: Pali Text Society, 1990, 1913 respectively (reprints).
T. Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新脩大藏經, ed. by Takakusu Junjirō 高楠順次郎 and Watanabe Kaikyoku 渡邊海旭, 100 vols. Tōkyo: Daizōkyōkai, 1924-1935.
Th. Theragāthā, ed. by L. Alsdorf and K. R. Norman, London: Pali Text Society, 1966.
Vin. Vinaya-piṭakaṃ. ed. by H. Oldenberg, 5 Vols., London: Pali Text Society, 1969-1982, 1879-1883 respectively (reprints).
『長阿含經』 T1
『中阿含經』 T26
『雜阿含經』 T99
『別譯雜阿含經』 T100
『增壹阿含經』 T125

◆ 이차 문헌 Secondary Literature

ANĀLAYO, Bhikkhu. 2011. “Tathāgata (1).” in Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, vol. VIII, edited by W.G. Weeraratne, 277-283. Colombo: Government of Sri Lanka.
BAREAU, André. 1963. Recherches sur la biographie du Buddha dans les sūtrapiṭaka et les vinayapiṭaka anciens: de la quète de l'éveil à la conversion de Śāriputra et de Maudgalyāyana, Paris: École Française D’extrême-orient.
BECKH, Hermann. 1916. Buddhismus: Buddha und Seine Lehre, Berlin and Leipzig: G. J. Göschen.
BODHI, Bhikkhu. 1978. “The Meaning of the Word ‘Tathāgata’ according to the Pāli Commentaries: Text and Introduction,” Pali Buddhist Review, vol. 3, no. 2, 65-83.10.1558/bsrv.v3i2.13877
BRONKHORST, Johannes. 2000. The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
BURTON, David. 2017. Buddhism: A Contemporary Philosophical Investigation, London & New York: Routledge.
DREWES, David. 2017. “The Idea of the Historical Buddha,” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 40, 1-25.
ENDO, Toshiichi. 1997. Buddha in Theravāda Buddhism: A Study of the Concept of Buddha in the Pali Commentaries, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Cultural Centre.
FAURE, Bernard. 2009. Unmasking Buddhism, Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781444308396
FOUCHER, Alfred. 1949. La vie du Bouddha: d’après les textes et les monuments de l’Inde, Paris: Payot.
GETHIN, Rupert. 1998. Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford: OPUS.
GOMBRICH, Richard. 2006. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, London & New York: Routledge. 10.4324/9780203130254
GUANG XING. 2005. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikāya Theory, London & New York: Routledge.
HARRISON, P. 1992. “Is the Dharma-kaya the real “phantom body” of the Buddha?,” The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, 44-94.
HARVEY, Peter. 2013. Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781139050531
HINÜBER, Oskar von. 2019. “The Buddha as a Historical Person,” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 42, 231-264.
LAMOTTE, Étienne. 1988. History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Śaka Era, (trans. S. Webb-Boin), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Institut Orientliste de l’Université Catholique de Louvain.
LEE Giyŏng 이기영. 2007[1965]. 『석가』(*Śākyamuni Buddha), Seoul: Korean Institute for Buddhist Studies 한국불교연구원.
LEE Jungp'yo (2024). 『인간 붓다: 신화와 설화를 걷어낸 율장 속 붓다의 참모습』(*The Human Buddha: The True Face of the Buddha in the Vinaya, Stripped of Myths and Tales), Seoul: Bulkwang 불광출판사.
LEVMAN, Bryan. 2019. “The Historical Buddha: Response to Drewes,” Canadian Journal of Buddhist Studies, vol. 14, 25-56.
MA SŎNG 마성. 2010. 『사캬무니 붓다 - 초기 성전에 묘사된 역사적 붓다』(*Śākyamuni Buddha - The Historical Buddha depicted in Early Scriptures), Seoul: Daesupbaram 대숲바람.
MASTANI, Fumio 増谷文雄. 1981. 『増谷文雄著作集 5 仏陀の伝記』(*Fumio Masutani Collected Works 5 Biography of the Buddha), Tōkyō: Kadokawa shoten 角川書店.
NAKAMURA, Hajime. 2001. Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts, Vol 1, translated by Gaynor Sekimori, Tōkyō: Kōsei Publishing Company.
NAMIKAWA, Takayoshi 並川孝儀. 2005. 『ゴータマ・ブッダ考』(*Thoughts on the Gautama Buddha), Tōkyō: Daizō shuppan 大蔵出版.
NITTA, Tomomichi 新田智通 et al., Nitta, Tomomichi 외 9인, WŎN Yŏngsang 원영상, tr. 2017. 『붓다와 정토』(『仏と浄土—大乗仏典II』[*The Buddha and the Pure Land: Mahāyāna Buddhist Scriptures II]), Seoul: CIR 씨아이알.
SCHMITHAUSEN, Lambert. 1990. “Preface.” in David Seyfort Ruegg and Lambert Schmithausen (eds.), Earliest Buddhism and Madhyamaka, Leiden: Brill, 1-2.10.1163/9789004646056_002
SHIMODA, Masahiro 下田正弘, LEE Jarang 이자랑, tr. 2018. 『열반경 연구』(『涅槃経の研究: 大乗経典の研究方法試論』[A Study of Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra: With a Focus on the Methodology of the Study of Mahāyānasūtras]), Seoul: CIR 씨아이알.
STRONG, John. 2009. The Buddha: A Beginner’s Guide, Oxford: Oneworld.
SWEARER, Donald K. 2004. Becoming the Buddha: The Ritual Image Consecration in Thailand, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. 10.1515/9780691216027
TAKEUCHI, Shoko 武內紹晃 et al., Takeuchi, Shoko 외 7인, CHŎNG sŭngsŏk 정승석, tr. 2005[1984]. 『대승불교개설』(『大乗仏教とは何か』[*What is Mahāyāna Buddhism?]), Seoul: Gimmyoungsa 김영사.
THOMAS, Edward J. 1993[1927]. The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
UI, Hakuju 宇井伯寿. 1927. 『印度哲學研究, vol. 4』(*A Study of Indian Philosophy, vol. 4), Tōkyō: Kōshisha Shobō 甲子社書房.
WYNNE, Alexander. 2019. “Did the Buddha Exist?,” Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, vol. 16, 98-148.

Information

Publisher :Korean Association of Buddhist Studies
Publisher(Ko) :불교학연구회
Journal Title :Korean Journal of Buddhist Studies
Journal Title(Ko) :불교학연구
Volume : 84
Pages :1∼23
DOI :https://doi.org/10.21482/jbs.84..202509.1

[1] AN. Aṅguttara-Nikāya, ed. by Richard Morris and E. Hardy, 5 vols., London: Pali Text Society, 1999-2013, 1885-1900 respectively (reprints).

[2] DN. Dīgha-Nikāya, ed. by T. W. Rhys Davids and J. E. Carpenter, 3 Vols., London: Pali Text Society, 1995-2007, 1890-1911 respectively (reprints).

[3] It. Itivuttaka, ed. by Ernst Windisch, London: Pali Text Society, 1975, 2010, 1889 respectively (reprints).

[4] Mil. Milindapañha, ed. by V. Trenckner, London: Pali Text Society, 1997, 1880 respectively (reprints).

[5] MN. Majjhima-Nikāya, ed. by V. Trenckner and R. Chelmers, 3 vols., London: Pali Text Society, 2013, 1888-1902 respectively (reprints).

[6] SN. Saṃyutta-Nikāya, ed. by Léon Feer, 5 vols., London: Pali Text Society, 1975-2006, 1884-1898 respectively (reprints).

[7] Sn. Suttanipāta, ed. by Dines Andersen and Helmer Smith, London: Pali Text Society, 1990, 1913 respectively (reprints).

[8] T. Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新脩大藏經, ed. by Takakusu Junjirō 高楠順次郎 and Watanabe Kaikyoku 渡邊海旭, 100 vols. Tōkyo: Daizōkyōkai, 1924-1935.

[9] Th. Theragāthā, ed. by L. Alsdorf and K. R. Norman, London: Pali Text Society, 1966.

[10] Vin. Vinaya-piṭakaṃ. ed. by H. Oldenberg, 5 Vols., London: Pali Text Society, 1969-1982, 1879-1883 respectively (reprints).

[11] 『長阿含經』 T1

[12] 『中阿含經』 T26

[13] 『雜阿含經』 T99

[14] 『別譯雜阿含經』 T100

[15] 『增壹阿含經』 T125

[16] ANĀLAYO, Bhikkhu. 2011. “Tathāgata (1).” in Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, vol. VIII, edited by W.G. Weeraratne, 277-283. Colombo: Government of Sri Lanka.

[17] BAREAU, André. 1963. Recherches sur la biographie du Buddha dans les sūtrapiṭaka et les vinayapiṭaka anciens: de la quète de l'éveil à la conversion de Śāriputra et de Maudgalyāyana, Paris: École Française D’extrême-orient.

[18] BECKH, Hermann. 1916. Buddhismus: Buddha und Seine Lehre, Berlin and Leipzig: G. J. Göschen.

[19] BODHI, Bhikkhu. 1978. “The Meaning of the Word ‘Tathāgata’ according to the Pāli Commentaries: Text and Introduction,” Pali Buddhist Review, vol. 3, no. 2, 65-83.10.1558/bsrv.v3i2.13877

[20] BRONKHORST, Johannes. 2000. The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

[21] BURTON, David. 2017. Buddhism: A Contemporary Philosophical Investigation, London & New York: Routledge.

[22] DREWES, David. 2017. “The Idea of the Historical Buddha,” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 40, 1-25.

[23] ENDO, Toshiichi. 1997. Buddha in Theravāda Buddhism: A Study of the Concept of Buddha in the Pali Commentaries, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Cultural Centre.

[24] FAURE, Bernard. 2009. Unmasking Buddhism, Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781444308396

[25] FOUCHER, Alfred. 1949. La vie du Bouddha: d’après les textes et les monuments de l’Inde, Paris: Payot.

[26] GETHIN, Rupert. 1998. Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford: OPUS.

[27] GOMBRICH, Richard. 2006. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, London & New York: Routledge. 10.4324/9780203130254

[28] GUANG XING. 2005. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikāya Theory, London & New York: Routledge.

[29] HARRISON, P. 1992. “Is the Dharma-kaya the real “phantom body” of the Buddha?,” The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, 44-94.

[30] HARVEY, Peter. 2013. Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781139050531

[31] HINÜBER, Oskar von. 2019. “The Buddha as a Historical Person,” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 42, 231-264.

[32] LAMOTTE, Étienne. 1988. History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Śaka Era, (trans. S. Webb-Boin), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Institut Orientliste de l’Université Catholique de Louvain.

[33] LEE Giyŏng 이기영. 2007[1965]. 『석가』(*Śākyamuni Buddha), Seoul: Korean Institute for Buddhist Studies 한국불교연구원.

[34] LEE Jungp'yo (2024). 『인간 붓다: 신화와 설화를 걷어낸 율장 속 붓다의 참모습』(*The Human Buddha: The True Face of the Buddha in the Vinaya, Stripped of Myths and Tales), Seoul: Bulkwang 불광출판사.

[35] LEVMAN, Bryan. 2019. “The Historical Buddha: Response to Drewes,” Canadian Journal of Buddhist Studies, vol. 14, 25-56.

[36] MA SŎNG 마성. 2010. 『사캬무니 붓다 - 초기 성전에 묘사된 역사적 붓다』(*Śākyamuni Buddha - The Historical Buddha depicted in Early Scriptures), Seoul: Daesupbaram 대숲바람.

[37] MASTANI, Fumio 増谷文雄. 1981. 『増谷文雄著作集 5 仏陀の伝記』(*Fumio Masutani Collected Works 5 Biography of the Buddha), Tōkyō: Kadokawa shoten 角川書店.

[38] NAKAMURA, Hajime. 2001. Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts, Vol 1, translated by Gaynor Sekimori, Tōkyō: Kōsei Publishing Company.

[39] NAMIKAWA, Takayoshi 並川孝儀. 2005. 『ゴータマ・ブッダ考』(*Thoughts on the Gautama Buddha), Tōkyō: Daizō shuppan 大蔵出版.

[40] NITTA, Tomomichi 新田智通 et al., Nitta, Tomomichi 외 9인, WŎN Yŏngsang 원영상, tr. 2017. 『붓다와 정토』(『仏と浄土—大乗仏典II』[*The Buddha and the Pure Land: Mahāyāna Buddhist Scriptures II]), Seoul: CIR 씨아이알.

[41] SCHMITHAUSEN, Lambert. 1990. “Preface.” in David Seyfort Ruegg and Lambert Schmithausen (eds.), Earliest Buddhism and Madhyamaka, Leiden: Brill, 1-2.10.1163/9789004646056_002

[42] SHIMODA, Masahiro 下田正弘, LEE Jarang 이자랑, tr. 2018. 『열반경 연구』(『涅槃経の研究: 大乗経典の研究方法試論』[A Study of Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra: With a Focus on the Methodology of the Study of Mahāyānasūtras]), Seoul: CIR 씨아이알.

[43] STRONG, John. 2009. The Buddha: A Beginner’s Guide, Oxford: Oneworld.

[44] SWEARER, Donald K. 2004. Becoming the Buddha: The Ritual Image Consecration in Thailand, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. 10.1515/9780691216027

[45] TAKEUCHI, Shoko 武內紹晃 et al., Takeuchi, Shoko 외 7인, CHŎNG sŭngsŏk 정승석, tr. 2005[1984]. 『대승불교개설』(『大乗仏教とは何か』[*What is Mahāyāna Buddhism?]), Seoul: Gimmyoungsa 김영사.

[46] THOMAS, Edward J. 1993[1927]. The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

[47] UI, Hakuju 宇井伯寿. 1927. 『印度哲學研究, vol. 4』(*A Study of Indian Philosophy, vol. 4), Tōkyō: Kōshisha Shobō 甲子社書房.

[48] WYNNE, Alexander. 2019. “Did the Buddha Exist?,” Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, vol. 16, 98-148.

Korean Journal of Buddhist Studies ISSN:1598-0642(Print) 불교학연구

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